by Kristen Dieffenbach, PhD, CC-AASP

The priorities of youth sport have long been out of wack. If you ask parents, many will say they enroll their children in season upon season of adult organized play to teach things like character and sportsmanship. They want to encourage their children to be healthy and well. And above all they want the kids to have fun. And I believe that many parents do want these things. However, these noble gains are often not reflected or even noticeable if we look at what is going on in youth sport. Parents lose sight of the important things as imagined college scholarships (the reality of which is best saved for another post), the status of having a child on the ‘select team’ and the ‘my child is a star’ fantasies take over. By the time the children hit adolescence, a large percentage have dropped out of sport. While some leave sport to do other things, many drop out because it isn’t fun anymore. Worse, many more are ‘forced out’ as the only opportunities for participation become increasingly more selective and elite. And perhaps most concerning, given the obesity/health crisis in our culture, we obviously have failed to instill a love for physical activity because once children and young adults stop playing organized sport, they stop moving.

Despite the high value placed on youth sport participation in our culture- and not always for the right reasons – youth sport coaches are often only volunteers who maybe played the sport at some point. They often have little to no training in the actual coaching of the sport and worse yet, they have no training in the coaching of children and how to teach the fundamentals or foundations of the sport. It is not uncommon to see a youth football practice being run just like the ‘big boy’s’ despite the fact that there is a world of difference in physical ability, mental processing, and even basic knowledge of the game between a 6 year old and a 20 year old. Imagine the outcry if a child’s teacher was hired based only on the fact that he or she could read. Yet most parents know little more about a coach’s credentials other than where he or she played college ball.

Do we want to hope that a coach gets lucky and gets it right? Are a passion for sport and liking kids credentials enough – or is that all about what the adult wants and about what is best for the kids? Are we ok that the person coaching our kids is more interested in a city wide trophy than in the long term health and well being of the kids? Is it ok that coach knows how to throw the long ball or how to read a defensive player on a college court but doesn’t have a clue how to break these things down and teach them appropriately to second graders?

Childhood is a crucial time for skill development and learning.  Physical motor pathways are developed that will last a lifetime, self esteem and a sense of self are built, and personal preferences or dislikes for different activities are founded. A coach plays a crucial role in all of this and proper training for that coach is key. Exactly what that training should be is an important question that needs to be explored. In many other countries, the most highly trained coaches are those who work with the youngest athletes to ensure a safe and healthy foundation. This approach helps foster talent as it develops AND ensures that those less endowed with genetic gifts (which often takes years upon years to really manifest) still have a healthy foundation in being active.

In a very positive step forward, the Obama administration has announced the creation of a White House Office of Olympic, Paralympic and Youth Sport.

(June 16, 2009 – http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President-Obama-Announces-New-White-House-Office-of-Olympic-Paralympic-and-Youth-Sport/).
No, this isn’t an immediate fix or a guaranteed solution. It is the creation of a dedicated effort to help better understand the needs and parameters of youth sport and make recommendations based on solid research. And it is an important opportunity for the start of an essential discussion – one that is long overdue. How do we make youth sport truly about the youth, both for their long term well being and to enhance the overall health of our population?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Kristen Dieffenbach, Ph.D., CC AASP #193
WVU – College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
Assistant Professor – Athletic Coaching Education

Malcom Gladwell writes about youth sports, Rick Pitino, David & Goliath and war strategy in the New Yorker:

by Dr. Stephen Walker, CC-AASP

When Vivek Ranadive’ coached his Redwood City – 12 year old girls basketball team to the National Junior Basketball Championships, he was more than a curiosity.  Never having played basketball, and coaching because his girls wanted to play – He coached by two rules:

1.)  He would Never Ever raise his voice because he knew 12 year old girls don’t respond well to that, and:

2.) He would disguise their weaknesses on offense by playing tenacious defense – every minute of every game.

You can guess that his team was smallish and had no real quality shooters.  But what his girls did have was a great attitude and they were superbly conditioned.  He knew they would have to do something extraordinary to compete with taller and more seasoned basketball teams.  He crafted an unusual, yet remarkably effective approach toward the game crafted from observation of teams at different levels and a keen sense of war strategy.  Ultimately, he adopted a way different game plan and proceeded to coach his Redwood City girls basketball team to success, great fun and legendary results.  With his assistant coaches, Roger Craig (49ner great NFL star) and Rometra Craig (his daughter – USC and Duke Div. I basketball alum) and, support from far and wide – their Redwood City team almost pulled it off, much to the chagrin of other teams’ coaches, their parents, and even a fair number of referees who didn’t know what to make of it…much less how to play against it.

The beauty of his defensive scheme rested in mastering the fundamentals of the full court press.  It’s credence established  through an eloquent review of war strategy, David and Goliath, and an insightful study of Rick Pitino – whose press is legendary amongst NCAA coaches.  This unusual piece by Gladwell in none other than the New Yorker is intelligent, beautifully written and filled with insights on coaching strategy – leveling the playing field – youth sports – team work – and ATTITUDE!

Check out David vs. Goliath

]]> http://www.podiumsportsjournal.com/2009/05/17/one-two-three-attitude-hah-another-lesson-in-coaching-education-and-youth-sports/feed/ 1 http://www.podiumsportsjournal.com/2009/05/12/structuring-rewards-for-athletes-in-youth-development-programs/ http://www.podiumsportsjournal.com/2009/05/12/structuring-rewards-for-athletes-in-youth-development-programs/#comments Tue, 12 May 2009 19:52:12 +0000 Stephen Walker, PhD http://www.podiumsportsjournal.com/?p=580

By Dr. Haley Perlus

Athletes First

Why do young athletes participate in sports?  This is a simple question with insurmountable implications for improving youth competitive sport.

Children choose to participate in sport for the following six reasons:

1) to have fun,  2) to learn and improve skills,   3) to be with friends,   4) to be part of a team,   5) to get exercise and stay in shape, and   6) for the challenge and excitement of competition (Gould & Petlichkoff, 1988).   Young athletes do not yet possess the talent, strength, skill, and experience to be elite (Erickson, 1996).  They’re in it purely to enjoy the experience.

From a developmental perspective, there are two justifications for youth competitive sport (Wiggins, 1987): personal development and peak performance. Personal development includes, but is not limited to, positive self-perceptions, long-term motivation to be active and experience new things, ability to cope with anxiety and disappointment, and sportspersonship.

Performance enhancement includes skill development and improvement

To keep young athletes in sport long enough for them to develop these positive qualities and discover their true athletic potential, sport psychologists recommend ……..

…….that youth competitive sports find a balance between individual and competitive rewards (Ames, 1986).

An individual reward structure allows athletes to work toward exerting more effort, learning from their mistakes, and improving their personal best performances. Individual rewards foster a sense of personal control and persuades athletes to bring attention to their skill development.

Conversely, a competitive reward structure highlights the natural urge for social comparison and forces athletes to work against each other for recognition. Competitive rewards encourage athletes to evaluate their ability solely based on performance outcome criteria and to forget about whether or not they improved from last time.

Individual rewards are especially important for children younger than 14 years. Research in developmental psychology (Horn, 1991; Horn & Hasbrook, 1986; 1987; Horn & Weiss, 1991) demonstrates that young athletes between eight and 12 years rely heavily on social comparison criteria and feedback and evaluation from significant adults (e.g. parents and coaches) to measure their success. Individual rewards teach young athletes to become aware of their own skill improvement. In turn, they develop an internal sense of satisfaction, self-efficacy and motivation. At this point, it would be difficult for an athlete to want to do anything but play sports.

It isn’t until about age 14 that athletes use multiple sources of criteria including social comparison, self-improvement, ease of learning new skills, and enjoyment of the activity to measure success. Thus, athletes around the age of 14 are developmentally capable of putting winning and social comparison in perspective and balancing it out with self-improvement.

As young athletes are developing, it is the responsibility of the coaches and parents to emphasize individual improvement rather than highlight the natural tendency to focus on how one young athlete compares to another. In turn, these athletes will exert more effort, persist to improve and learn new skills, and develop a long-term interest to stay in sport. Most importantly, they will be given the opportunity to develop physically and psychologically and realize their true athletic potential.

An Example worth looking at: Competitive Ski Racing

In an effort to create a more enjoyable experience for young athletes and instill positive personal development and performance enhancement, many youth competitive sport programs have modified the typical reward system. Instead of rewarding only the top three males and females in their level of competition, the reward system acknowledges a larger number of athletes (e.g. the top ten males and females).
Although intensions are pure, this reward system could produce the exact opposite effect of what it was designed for. Instead of decreasing the significance of social comparison and winning, the reward system places further emphasis on finish placements. Also, by distributing competitive rewards to a larger group of athletes in an attempt to increase self-efficacy, the youth program runs the risk of instilling unrealistic expectations for future competition. These viewpoints are discussed below.

Emphasis on Social Comparison and Winning

Imagine Jake, a small nine year old racer, who continues to improve his technique, but is not yet capable of placing in the top ten for his age group. To be a good “team player” Jakes is required to stay after each race and watch his peers be recognized for their race results. With a typical reward system, Jake would watch for a short period of time while the bronze, silver, and gold medals are distributed to the three fastest racers. With this new reward system in place, the duration of the ceremony is much longer. Consequently, Jake is conditioned to believe that the results and the competitive rewards make up the main event of the competition.

Picture Tracy, an 11 year old girl, walking to her parent’s car after the reward ceremony. Tracy is now looking around and seeing many athletes holding their reward while she is getting into the car empty-handed. Compared to when only a select few athletes, who finished in the top three, received a reward, Tracy is reminded of how slow she was compared to many of her peers.

In both cases, Jake and Tracy are exposed to a youth sport environment that teaches them the importance of race results and social comparison for measuring success. Due to their inability to earn a competitive reward, Jake and Tracy will develop low self-efficacy and possibly a fear of failure. The end result is an unhappy athlete who no longer enjoys the sport.

Instilling Unrealistic Expectations

Lisa, an early developing and talented 12 year old ski racer, is among the top five fastest girls in every race. Lisa is used to being recognized for skiing fast and she loves the attention and praise she continues to receive from all of the coaches, ski parents, and peers.

What will happen in a few years when Lisa’s peers catch up to her in strength, ability, and speed? It is common for an athlete like Lisa, who received endless recognition for her performance outcomes, to develop high self-efficacy in her sport. Unfortunately, when a top ten placement becomes harder to achieve, Lisa will have difficulty coping with the possibility of not getting a competitive reward. She will then be susceptible to anxiety and emotional exhaustion that could lead to burnout and, in worse cases, dropout.

How to Structure Rewards for Youth Competitive Sport

Winning and social comparison is inevitable in sport. The desire to be the best will never disappear, nor should it. Athletes, young and old, are going to ask themselves if they won and how they compared to their peers. However, we can balance this orientation by emphasizing individual improvement.

It is appropriate for youth competitive sport to include competitive rewards, just as they are included in higher levels of competition. Young athletes do not need to be sheltered from the true nature of competitive sports. Experience with success and defeat will help athletes to develop coping skills they can implement in any life domain.

It is essential, however, for coaches and parents to also provide athletes support for their self-referenced achievement. This support can be verbal (“Jake, your hands were up in front of your body the whole run – way to go”), physical (Tracy’s coach pats her on the back and gives her a smile in the finish area), or tangible (Lisa earns a hat, donated by a sponsor, for demonstrating aggressive effort from the start to the finish line). What is important is that each reward is earned and not just given for the sake of giving. When the reward is meaningful, it will instill self-efficacy in the young athlete, making the overall experience much more enjoyable.

The individual reward structure will also serve to put winning in perspective and define success and failure in terms of personal improvement (Smoll & Smith, 2002). Now, in addition to wanting to know how one person compared to another person, young athletes will be interested to know how they can get better than they were before and what will help them improve from their last performance.

Who is Dr. Haley Perlus?

Haley is a doctor of sport and exercise psychology.  She is an expert at empowering individuals to achieve peak performance.  A former elite athlete, Whistler Cup Alpine Ski Racing Champion, Coach, group fitness instructor, and fitness trainer, Haley has devoted her life to sport and exercise and understands the difficulty of overcoming performance blocks so that people can consistently perform to the best of their ability.  She is an enthusiastic and passionate seminar leader, speaking at numerous conferences, workshops, conventions and trade shows. She is an adjunct professor at the University of Colorado – Colorado Springs.  Dr. Perlus is available for individual and group mental toughness consultations. To find out more about these programs, email us at haley@drhaleyperlus.com or call us at (303) 459-4516.

What information you should know for those considering athletics in NCAA Division I, II, or III.

By Dr. Stephen Walker, CC-AASP

Have you ever wondered how is it that some athletes get recruited and others that may have talent don’t?

Pursuing your athletic career beyond high school is both exciting and challenging. If you are positioning yourself properly you will play both club and HS sports, and you are aware of the fact that only about 1-5% of those who want financial support playing collegiate athletics actually receive it. Most people think of the big bucks and recruiting budgets that large schools have, but rarely do they realize that these schools get a lot of financial help from their college football program, and a few may get help from their college basketball program. Of course, these are the cream of the Division I class and the competition is keen.

The truth is this…very few college sports are able to support their own budgets and to think that coaches in your sport are traveling the country to find you….is a myth. The vast majority of athletes playing collegiate sports are playing Division II, NAIA, Division III and at the Junior College level. Some of these athletes get support in the form of full or partial scholarships, internships, and/or financial aid unavailable to other students, but nobody gets it without asking for it…..

Bottom line: Play for the “love of the game” and because you are a better person when you’re testing your limits, pursuing advanced skills (physically and mentally) and working diligently to improve in an endeavor you are truly passionate about.

Now that I’ve said that, this article is going to focus on: how you network, get yourself seen, make the contacts you will need, acquire the tools necessary for marketing yourself, and, finding the right fit for you. The fit is key. It can make a difference in the level of competition you achieve, and coming into contact with mentors who will nurture your growth in positive ways. You will want to seek a program that will give you the opportunity to play, develop your love of the game, and be in a position to get a great education…benefits you will enjoy for the rest of your life.

So How do I get myself in the mix?

If….you have talent….and if….you have the commitment to develop that talent – you will make it a point to attend camps, workshops, and clinics in your home state and possibly other parts of the country in your sport. Talent is evaluated regularly at these events and coaches frequently participate on a number of levels. Showcase camps give coaches opportunities to network with their colleagues, college scouts, and other graduates of these camps who come back to assist. Their goal is to learn about who’s there, see them play, mix up the competition, and meet athletes of interest to their program. In some cases, even get to know them. The McDonald’s basketball showcases are amongst the best known, but there are many others throughout the country in every collegiate sport.

Attending these camps helps you work on your skills, up your competitive level, get to know other players, coaches and learn about programs throughout the country making a few friends in the process.

Many athletes, especially those who are late bloomers, can find advantages in taking a super senior year in high school – matriculating in a prep school known as a feeder for collegiate teams in your sport. For example, Northwood School in Lake Placid, New York (www.northwoodschool.com) is a well-known feeder in ice hockey – with four teams (both boys and girls) and only 160 students on campus. Fourteen alumni have been featured in the NHL or on Olympic teams. Don’t hesitate to consider such options. Exposure in a different part of the country, continued development of your skills and the expansion of your network of contacts can be tremendously valuable. is concerned. The educations offered at these schools can give you a big boost academically, as well.

How do I put myself in position to be recruited?

Those athletes that make headlines week in and week out are rare. To be known you will need to market yourself. The day of your high school coach making the connections for you is long gone. Most HS coaches, even in high profile sports like football, have contacts in less than 5% of the programs around the country. Having your own marketing materials is key, and having them be good enough to circulate effectively is imperative. But that is just one small part of the skill sets you must acquire.

You must begin early. If you have talent, you will be performing at the varsity level in your Junior year or sooner, or be willing to consider a super-senior athletic experience to boost your exposure and athletic development.

Beginning the process of researching programs which might be the best fit is really important. You must be committed and you must do your research. Consider registering with a service that helps you explore that fit, and facilitate the contacts you may need to pursue the recruiting process further.

The following tips are some specific guidelines on how to engage in the process and be prepared when the time comes. Links are provided with two of the better research sites available to help you understand what to do and when.

Things to remember:

1) You are going to college to get an education. The right fit for you is key. This decision of where you go – will be felt for the next several years in your life.

2) You must market yourself. This packet of information about you includes your academic record, summary of personal achievements, a DVD of your game (featuring skill sets in your sport & competition), interviews or recommendations with coach(s), and a personal statement as to your interests, goals and aspirations in your sport. Consider registering yourself with someone who will distribute your materials. One such resource is Richard Harvey (former NFL linebacker.) He is the founder of this program and takes pride in helping each athlete not only develop a top notch resume (comprised of DVD, stats, interviews, but sport specific skills footage.) In addition, he help identify the best athlete-program fit for you.  Check out Richard’s website:  www.Resumes4Sports.com.

3) Networking is hugely important – knowing where to look and how to connect with programs that might want you is key. One helpful resource is: www.AthleticQuest.net

4) Remember – everything you do is your calling card. Your facebook page, a video your friend took at last Thursday’s party…might just end up on YouTube. Don’t assume you have anonymity…also don’t assume those institutions or coaches you want to see you – actually will.

5) There are rules and regulations, key dates and deadlines for all the things you need to do with respect to recruiting. Check out another helpful resource: www.RecruitingRealities.com.

You Must Work Hard to Realize Your Dreams – And a lot of the Work isn’t on the Court or the Field. Your Parents and your coaches can Help You…But Don’t Assume They Know How.

Good Luck! Go for it!

by T.C. North, Ph.D.

The vast majority of parents want the absolute best for their children. This is especially true in organized youth and high school sports, where parents love to see their children do well and win. But in many cases parents’ desire to have their children do well can cause problems in the parent/child relationship. In extreme situations that I have witnessed, it can cause irreparable damage.

For 16 years, I have consulted with athletes in elementary school, junior high, and high school as well as college, Olympians and professionals. Sports, and other areas where children and teenagers participate competitively, play an important role for these youths to learn personal and team success strategies and how to compete. Consulting with young athletes, I have discovered that loving, well-meaning parents can sometimes behave in a manner that is be a detriment to the parent/child relationship and to the child’s development through sports. So, over the years, I have developed guidelines for parents and young athletes to consider in maximizing the enjoyment and benefit of organized sports for the whole family. However, since all family situations are different, please only consider the guidelines that make sense to your family.

Support your children …
• Give them unconditional love whether they win or lose.
• Let your child’s sport be your child’s challenge and success, not yours.
• Allow them to be more independent.
• Use positive communications with your child.
Support the Coaches …
• Your child needs you to be the parent. Let the coach do the coaching.
Parents Have Fun …
• Enjoy competitions whether your child wins or loses.

Give children unconditional love whether they win or lose! This will help your child understand that he/she is lovable and has value independent of the outcome of competition. Emphasize and reward fun, skill development and other benefits of sports participation, like cooperation, competition, self-discipline and commitment, rather than winning. Show interest in your child’s participation by attending competitions, transporting your child to practices and asking questions about their enjoyment and what they are learning. Avoid being highly emotional about the outcome of the competition.

Let your child’s sport be your child’s challenge and success, not yours. Assist your child in setting realistic and challenging goals for participation (not outcomes). These goals must be your child’s goals, not yours. Help your child understand success and disappointment and to learn from both. Help your children to develop mastery and love of a lifetime of sports and help your child develop positive, constructive personal success strategies through sports participation — a transferable life skill.

Allow your children to become more independent. Participation in sports is an independent step for kids. Your attitude influences how your child feels during and after a competition. Share your child’s joys, be empathetic with your child’s frustrations and losses, and encourage your child to keep learning. Allow your child to experience and process the feelings of winning and losing without imposing your feelings; try to not become overly emotionally involved. When your child loses a competition and experiences you the parent as upset, this may cause the child to feel guilty for upsetting you. While watching your child compete, always look upbeat. As part of your child’s maturation process, allow your child to struggle a little to solve his/her own problems as much as possible.

Use positive communications with your child. Use of threats, sarcasm, fear, or other negative approaches, erodes your child’s self-esteem and provokes a desire to rebel against you. Be honest with your praise. When your child feels successful, share the joy, when your child is disappointed, be supportive. Always compare your child’s development to himself or herself, not to other children. Please do not do or say anything that will cause your child to think less of him/herself, or of you.

Support Coaches

Your child needs you to be the parent. Let the coach do the coaching. Give the coach and the team your time and support. Parents please do not criticize coaches, officials or other athletes, this will effect your child, almost always by being embarrassed and may cause them to lose respect for you. Communicate with the coach about your child and listen to what the coach learns about your child that can help you. Ask for a periodic update on your child’s progress to be done at a mutually convenient time. If your child’s behavior is unacceptable during practice or competitions, discuss with the coach how the coach would like you to help to resolve this.

Parents Have Fun

Enjoy competitions whether your child wins or loses. Enjoy socializing with other parents at sporting events. This can be more fun for you and your child will not have to be concerned about your enjoyment. Do not make your child feel guilty for the time, energy and money you are spending. However, it is fair to have participation guidelines that your child needs to meet in order for you to continue to pay for the child’s sports (e.g., going to practices).

It is natural for all parents to want their child to succeed in what ever they do. However, in parents’ strong desire for their children to be their best, it is easy to become overly emotionally involved in your child’s sports and despite a parent’s best intentions, end up hurting your relationship with your child. Following the above guidelines can help both you and your child get the most joy out of sports competition while maintaining, and even strengthening your relationship.

TC North, Ph.D., is CEO of Catalyst High Performance and Founder of Spirit of Sport. He is a high-performance speaker, consultant and coach for entrepreneurs, sales professionals and athletes. He catalyzes individuals and teams to become higher-performers, personally, professionally and athletically. You may contact him for an individual consultation, or to work with your team or business at (303) 665-8920 or TCNorth (at) BoulderCatalyst.com.

Here’s the link to this article on FairGrader.com.

To fully understand sport psychology, we must ask ourselves two very important questions, first, what is sport psychology and second, who is it for Put in the most simple way, sport psychology can be an example of psychological knowledge, principles, or methods applied to the world of sport. “Two psychologists, Bunker and Maguire, say sport psychology is not for psychologists, but is for sport and its participants.” Murphy first, goal setting focuses attention, second, it mobilizes effort in proportion to the demands of the tasks, third, it enhances persistence, and finally, they encourage the individual to develop strategies for achieving their goals.” Wolff, 1993:146

Another goal setting procedure is the widespread use of the acronym SCAMP as a way of teaching athletes simple goal setting procedures…..

….Specify exactly how much you want to improve and how you can measure it. Set goals that are challenging but have possibility. Set goals that are attainable. Set multiple goals to increase probability of attainment. Set goals that relate to you, ones that are personal. Over recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the development of 11 theories and models dealing with participation motivation in sports. “The work deliberately focuses on young athletes and highlights the significance of intrinsic motivators in maximizing an individual’s long term commitment to sport.” Butt, 1987:215 At the same time, the dangers associated with either parents or coaches emphasizing extrinsic rewards are openly acknowledged. In brief, the history of research on work motivation has shown a gradual shift from traditional content models of work motivation which strived to list or classify motivators, and towards an appreciation of the complexities of the process of motivation. “The complexities of the process of motivation are exemplified by the various expectancy-value models which describe personal and environmental variables play their part in determining the relationship between effort, performance, rewards, and satisfaction.” Garfield, 1984:34

The argument advanced by Porter and Lawler is that motivation is related to performance, to reward and to satisfaction in a definable way. “Three principle components are taken to determine motivation, namely expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.” Butt, 1987:86 Our motivation will depend first, upon our belief that we are capable of influencing our performance through increasing effort. Second, our knowledge that an increase in performance will result in more awards. Finally, it will depend on the value which we place on the reward that we expect to receive. This is represented in the model below.

One important feature of this model is the emphasis it places on feedback. “Accordingly in the context of coaching the model has considerable practical utility for identifying and dealing with management problems effectively.” Butt, 1987: 87 The model also has great learning value for considering the interaction between a number of cognitive and environmental factors in determining satisfaction and future effort. However, the complexity of the model also means that it is difficult to develop a research project which is able to look at each component systematically or to take into account all other possible intervening factors, for example, attributional style. “Once more, occupational psychology may present genuine opportunities for understanding and there is a need to ensure that an awareness of the many faces of sport, both amateur and professional, voluntary and compulsory, are kept very much to the fore in any further discussion of sport motivation.” Garfield, 1984:38

Using a very basic expectancy-value model to frame discussion, a preliminary study by Kremer and Robinson 1992 considered the attitudes and motivations of professional apprentice soccer players that were from Northern Ireland who had travelled to join English and Scottish teams, often to return to Ireland after being rejected there. “Contrary to predictions based on intrinsic motivation models, these platers did not return disenchanted and lost to the game, but almost invariably they slotted comfortably into life in the Irish League, often older and wiser as to their potential but still continuing to take a very active part in the game which they continued to enjoy.” Butt, 1987:88 Clearly the reward structure which motivated these young professional athletes was very different from that which is described in relation to participation rates and drop-outs amongst young, amateur athletes. Once more, occupational psychology may present genuine opportunities for understanding and there is a need to ensure that a knowledge and awareness of the many faces of sport, both amateur and professional, voluntary and compulsory, are kept very much to the front in any future discussion of sport motivation. From this research that has been done over some four years, one can understand that psychology does play a significant part in sport and in the minds of athletes, especially at a young age. Sport psychology ranges from judging an athlete’s personality all the way to his her coach. We see the many methods and techniques used by psychologists to keep an athlete in the right frame of mind to participate in sports. We have seen methods dealing with the cognitive side of sport psychology such as imagery and visualization to handle stress in sports. We have seen methods of clinical psychology such as relaxation techniques to release pre-game tensions and anxiety. We have seen methods of social psychology dealing with harmful aggression of athletes. We also have seen methods of occupational psychology in which the coaches of athletes get involved in psychology and motivation models come into play for coaches to use in order to motivate their athletes.

We can see that psychologists have not ignored psychology in the world of sport, something that cannot be ignored with the growing number in athletic participation by young people. “With each new year comes an increase in new developments dealing with sport psychology.” Murphy & White, 1978:9 However, there is still much work to be done in sport psychology. There are still many unresolved questions and even some new questions and even some new questions that have arisen over the years dealing with sport psychology. Take anxiety for instance. Psychologists have found ways to reduce anxiety but not eliminate it. Maybe there is no way to eliminate it since everyone has it. Another example is aggression. Wherever there are sports, there is aggression. Psychologists have stated that sports are a way for people to release their aggression. However, they still have not been able to fully eliminate the violence in sports. Psychologists are also working on new methods for motivating athletes because some athletes are harder to motivate that others. Even though there are these unresolved issues in sport psychology, the future of psychology in sports, especially youth sports, looks to be on a very progressive track with many new discoveries.